Where does noise originate?

Usually the first gain stage (preamp). Noise introduced here amplified by everything after. Ground loops and RF at this stage are most audible. Proper input gain is the most important noise control.

What sample rate for measurement?

48 kHz, 24-bit. Response to 24 kHz with margin. 144 dB dynamic range exceeds analog electronics. Higher rates offer marginal measurement benefit.

How does latency affect live sound?

Digital: 1-5 ms. Below 5 ms imperceptible. IEM: below 3 ms to avoid comb filtering with stage sound. Total under 10 ms for comfortable performance.

What causes distortion?

Any stage beyond linear range: preamp clipping, DAC overload above 0 dBFS, amp clipping, speaker excursion limits. Proper gain structure prevents distortion throughout.

Where does noise originate?

Usually the first gain stage (preamp). Noise introduced here amplified by everything after. Ground loops and RF at this stage are most audible. Proper input gain is the most important noise control.

What sample rate for measurement?

48 kHz, 24-bit. Response to 24 kHz with margin. 144 dB dynamic range exceeds analog electronics. Higher rates offer marginal measurement benefit.

How does latency affect live sound?

Digital: 1-5 ms. Below 5 ms imperceptible. IEM: below 3 ms to avoid comb filtering with stage sound. Total under 10 ms for comfortable performance.

What causes distortion?

Any stage beyond linear range: preamp clipping, DAC overload above 0 dBFS, amp clipping, speaker excursion limits. Proper gain structure prevents distortion throughout.

Audio Signal Chain — Source to Speaker

The signal chain: microphone transduction, preamplification, ADC, digital processing, DAC, power amplification, and loudspeaker output. Understanding each stage is essential for diagnosing problems and optimizing performance in any audio system.

IEC 61094-1:2000AES-6id:2023IEC 60268-3:2018

Microphone

Converts acoustic to electrical. Sensitivity, response, polar pattern, self-noise. Measurement mics per IEC 61094: flat, omnidirectional.

Preamp

Boosts mic level (-60 to -20 dBu) to line (+4 dBu). Sets SNR for entire downstream chain.

ADC

48 kHz, 24-bit typical (144 dB theoretical range). Nyquist: sample rate exceeds 2x highest frequency.

Processing

EQ, dynamics, delay, routing, effects. 32/64-bit float internal. 1-5 ms latency for live sound.

Power Amp + Speaker

Class D: 85-95% efficient. Speakers: 0.5-5% efficient. Crossover divides between drivers.

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Audio Signal Chain — Source to Speaker

Microphone

Preamp

ADC

Processing

Power Amp + Speaker

Frequently Asked Questions

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→Gain Structure — Input to Output

→How to Read & Measure Frequency Response

→Live Sound Measurement — Beginner's Guide

→Microphone Calibration for Audio Measurement